A New Testament Introduction Final Test (Student Project) Part 1 The Test

New Testament Introduction (NT500)

The following questions will test the students’ understanding of the key components of the course materials broken out into three sections. The questions will include Multiple Choice (10), True/False (10), and Short-Essay (5). This is an open book test, please have your primary texts and a copy of the NRSVue or CEB translations available.

For the Answer Key: A New Testament Introduction Final Test (Student Project) Part 2 The Answer Key ~ NoHiding.Faith

Part I: Lectures

1.      The term ‘Hellenism’ finds its roots in the conquests of which ancient conqueror:

a.       Caesar Augustus

b.      Alexander the Great

c.       Socrates the Wise

d.      Hellen of Troy

2.      Explain what Hellenism was, and why it is crucial for understanding the New Covenant (NT) texts:

Essay Answer:

 

3.      The New Covenant writers use descriptions of Jesus that echo those of Emperor Augustus on the Priene Calendar Inscription.

a.       True

b.      False

4.      While dissenting opinions exist, most scholars agree that this gospel was produced first:

a.       Matthew

b.      Mark

c.       Luke

d.      John

5.      If it were not for this gospel, there would be no written record to indicate that Jesus’s ministry lasted more than one year:

a.       Matthew

b.      Mark

c.       Luke

d.      John

6.      Describe Intercalations (Markan Sandwiches) in the gospel of Mark:

Essay Answer:

 

7.      Other than the letters attributed to Paul (Rabbi Sha’ul), what other sources give us a portrait of his life?

a.       The works of Josephus

b.      The works of Philo of Alexandria

c.       The work of Luke-Acts

d.      The book of Hebrews

8.      According to the writings of Paul (Rabbi Sha’ul), what are the themes and driving concerns of the 1^st century Jesus communities?

Essay Answer:

 

9.      Paul’s gospel is a story of salvation for the human race in continuity with Israel’s Scriptures and in contrast to the gospel of Rome. It was inherently both religious and political.

a.       True

b.      False

10.  Regarding the book of Hebrews, which statement below is false:

a.       Hebrews’ Author is anonymous, and various authors have been suggested.

b.      Hebrews’ Audience is anonymous, but the letter reads as if there is a familial closeness.

c.       Hebrews is a traditional epistle with a clear opening and closing, following the format of Paul’s other letters.

d.      Hebrews is an often-overlooked key to concepts around the fatherhood of God.

11.  The term Apocalypse (apokalupsis) in second temple Judaism literature literally translates to:

a.       End Times Prophecy

b.      Uncovering/Unveiling/Disclosing

c.       Pending Disaster

d.      The Concealer / One who hides

12.  An Apocalypse (apokalupsis) in second temple Judaism literature is most commonly used to tell what kind of story:

a.       Anticipation that the world will end suddenly because of something catastrophic and unexpected.

b.      Anticipation that the world will end because of the mess human beings have made of the earth.

c.       Anticipation that things are working toward a dystopian world in which evil reigns and good is extinguished.

d.      Anticipation that things are being revealed for what they actually are; and that the world and everything in it will be made right.

13.  The two-part work of Luke-Acts is known in the world of biblical scholarship as a:

a.       Diptych

b.      Diphthong

c.       Dysentery

d.      Dysphoria

Part II: NT Texts

14.  Matthew begins his gospel with several series of 14-step lineages. How many sets of 14 does Matthew use?

a.       2

b.      3

c.       4

d.      5

15.  Hebrews 11 is often called the ‘Hall of Faith’ which promises that nobody who follows Yahweh/Yeshua ever dies without having received all the promises they were owed beforehand.

a.       True

b.      False

16.  The book of Jude directly quotes from what other text within second temple Judaism, which was not later accepted into the final canon of ‘scripture’.

a.       The Wisdom of Solomon

b.      The Maccabees

c.       1 Esdras

d.      1 Enoch

17.  Paul’s letter to the Romans has a recurring theme exploring Jews and Greeks (Gentiles). How could that theme inform one’s reading of Romans? Give at least two examples.

Essay Answer:

 

18.  The gospel of John begins by identifying Jesus as “The Lamb of God” (Ch 1), then shows Jesus as The Good Shepherd (Ch 10), then ends with Jesus asking Peter to “feed my lambs” (Ch 21). How could reading the gospel with these hinge-points in mind inform your reading of the text of John?

Essay Answer:

 

Part III: Secondary Readings

BGNTS: Gupta, Nijay K. A Beginner’s Guide to New Testament Studies: Understanding Key Debates. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic: A Division of Baker Publishing Group, 2020.

19.  How did the New Testament authors read and/or understand their Old Testament (Hebrew Bible)? There are two common views in biblical scholarship, in context or out of context, briefly explain which view is most compelling and why?

*Refresh your understanding in Chapter 12: The Old and New Testament.

Essay Answer:

 

20.  Some scholars see Paul’s writing as Apocalyptic, which means that Paul’s gospel is not a continuation of the on-going story of salvation-history but a line of demarcation into an entirely new age (Ch 5).

a.       True

b.      False

21.  There are two views in scholarship on ‘Women in Leadership’, they are referred to officially in the BGNTS as the heretical leadership and egalitarian leadership models.

a.       True

b.      False

NTIC: McCaulley, Esau, Amy Peeler, Janette H. Ok, and Osvaldo Padilla, eds. The New Testament in Color: A Multiethnic Bible Commentary. Downers Grove, IL: IVP Academic: An Imprint of InterVarsity Press, 2024.

22.  The Turtle Island Biblical Interpretation recognizes that the Indigenous Peoples of what is now North America had a relationship with Creator long before the colonizers showed up with bibles and diseases. For these tribes, their native mythologies, histories, creation stories and cultural practices are an “Old Testament” to them even as The Hebrew Bible (Torah, Tanakh, and Second Temple Judaism) are an ‘Old Testament’ for many first century Jewish Jesus followers.

a.       True

b.      False

23.  The Hispanic Biblical Interpretation must “critique Enlightenment-based biblical approaches” because they tend to deal with afterlife concerns but not real-world practical concerns in local communities.

a.       True

b.      False

24.  The Asian American Biblical Interpretation is difficult to pin down because there are so many cultures and time-periods represented in the term “Asian American”, nevertheless, it seeks to find the overlap between exegesis and the Asian American experiences and histories that this community brings to the text, including the experience of being treated as “Always Ethnic, Never American”.

a.       True

b.      False

25.  The African American Biblical Interpretation shows the unique ways in which being Black in the United States of America is qualitatively different than being black in other countries. A history of slave ownership created a reading of the biblical texts rooted in ‘hope’ of freedom, with a strong root in the Exodus narratives. This interpretation helps the reader see hope in the midst of deep pain and turmoil and opposition.

a.       True

b.      False

26.  The Majority-Culture Biblical Interpretation (Reading While White) is already the default reading and lion-share of biblical scholarship; therefore, this reading is intended to make white people feel guilty about being white and dominating the discussion, so they can stop contributing and give others their turn instead.

a.       True

b.      False

 

Shalom שָׁלוֹם: Live Long and Prosper!

Darrell Wolfe

Storyteller | Writer | Thinker | Consultant | Freelancer | Bible Nerd *Written withs some editing and research assistance from ChatGPT-4o

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Grandeur is a delusion; the path to Shalom comes through suffering.

... Grandeur, a delusion... 

Last night I was studying the letters of Ephesians through Philemon; and the theme of suffering came up repeatedly. I saw Rabbi Sha'ul (Paul) talking about suffering far more than I noticed him taking about faith or law. He spoke about suffering and the hope of Jesus on the other side of suffering, both in this life and beyond.

Then this morning I saw yet another shiney advertisement promising to set me up with the skills to get millions of followers and be a paid keynote speaker. I shook my head and scrolled past. 

But then something in me paused... 

I really did used to expect that one day I would have millions of followers "just like Kenneth Copeland", Pentecostal days. But instead, I found myself having emotional meltdowns and while some people found me fun to listen to, most people didn't like me. I was disappointed with that illusion... Delusion... It finally developed serious cracks when I had a full nervous system crash in 2016 (I later learned that was an autistic meltdown). 

Then I remembered...

My Dad's dreams of building a mega church and how it was one of his major career disappoinments, contributing to his eventually leaving Christianity all together. He ran from church to church because it wasn't growing fast enough. Then left entirely. 

When my wife died (2018), who shared that big dream with me... That dream died. It tried to reassert itself a few times in the last 7 years, but it just never had the pull it once did. 

Suffering, however, has been the key force in my life that produced the fruit of Messiah in me. While I'm imperfect and frequently fail to be a good human, I've grown. I've grown in massive and transformative ways since 2016. 

Widower was a new label I obtained, and it's become one of my badges. Like Paul wore the badge of Prisoner proudly, so do I bear the label Widower. It doesn't define me but it represents a key moment in my journey towards a healthier relationship with myself, and with people, the Bible, Yeshua, Yahweh, and yet my departure from Churchianity.

Mike Wolfe could never abide suffering. He ran from it. He used to say boredom was his most painful experience. At the end his life even left the hospital "because they didn't have Netflix and he was bored", which directly led to his death a few months later, in January of 2025.

Some people seek "happy", and avoid the pain of transformation distracting themselves with humour or silly television shows or entertainment. These are all good things, joy is also part of the human experience, but if they are exclusively sought in avoidance of the hard things, they create a plastic life.

If Mike (Dad) would have leaned into instead of away from that feeling, he'd have had the opportunity to experience transformation. Instead, he died alone and without any genuine connection to others or to himself.

He still had a few, very few, people who loved him around, but he was incapable of genuine connection, because connection requires getting comfortable hardship, it requires being comfortable with both the joyful but also the yucky parts of the human experience.

If there is another attribute I've earned, it's the ability to sit with people during the hard stuff. I am easily distracted by my busy inner world, but when I encounter a human who is suffering, I find myself snap into a different internal space. I become fully present. 

Suffering has become synonymous with growth and transformation for me. 

I still rebel against it inside. Anyone would, nobody wants to suffer or see someone else suffer. It's a yucky messy experience. 

But I'm also not afraid of it anymore. I lean-in to the suffering and look for the growth. 

Ex: When my work was in chaos, my team leaned-in and created massive opportunities for growth and building something new and better.

In Colossians, Paul picks up the same theme from Philippians and his other letters. In Colossians (1:24), Messiah’s suffering was being completed in Paul’s body on behalf of Messiah’s body (the ekklesia). As with most of his letters, Paul is focused on God’s ‘secret plan’ to unite Jews and Gentiles, and his own suffering is part of that mission (v26-29). He’s uniting the factions, and his suffering is the soil that brings about this harvest. The theme of suffering is littered throughout Paul’s writings, probably more than ‘faith’ or ‘law’ even (just a impression from my reading last night). This is an important topic for him, and one I’ve largely ignored because it didn’t make me comfortable. 

“Paul speaks of affliction and suffering per se over sixty times” — Scott J. Hafemann, “Suffering,” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, ed. Gerald F. Hawthorne, Ralph P. Martin, and Daniel G. Reid (Downers Grove, IL: InterVarsity Press, 1993), 919.

Yancey wrote about this in his book "Where is God when it hurts?" Which remains a book I think about often over the years since I read it.

I visited a Buddhist Temple recently, and I found it a peaceful experience. If "church" were more like a Buddhist Temple, I'd probably still go. Ironically, ancient Judaism and early Jesus Followers were more like that Buddhist Temple than modern Churchianity environments.

600 years before Rabbi Yeshua's trek on earth, Siddhartha Gautama identified a key issue with the human experience: Attachment 

He noticed people like my father becoming worse as they built attachments to things, accomplishments, and even unhealthy attachments to people. His answer to these was to unattach himself entirely. He left his wife and kids and life as a wealthy individual, to seek enlightenment through detaching from it all. He found a measure of pace through this. 

However, I have found, and modern Psychology through Attachment Theory has found, that the real solution isn't detaching entirely but in building healthy attachments. Both over and under attachment are harmful to humans. It is living in the tension between these that true transformation has been found in my life. 

Boundaries 101, I need to allow you to own your journey, not trying to fix you for you, I need to own my journey, not trying to get others to regulate me when I'm responsible for regulating me. That's the tension where healthy attachments reside. I'd forgotten those lessons the last few years, only recently re-centering on them and regaining my Shalom.

It's not lost on me that Yahweh often gives people the things they desire after they come fully into letting that desire die so that "God is their God", not the desire. That's the story of many characters through the biblical narratives. Suffering is to be embraced as part of the human experience. The eastern biblical authors meditated on the human condition, as did the Buddhists. They pondered the joy and the brokenness, seeing the tension in them. When one reads Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and Job as books in conversation with one another, rather than isolated texts, that picture becomes clear.

The Shema is the single most sacred prayer of the devout Jew to this day:

Deuteronomy 6:4 (RHGB2E):  

שְׁמַ֖ע יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ יְהוָ֥ה ׀ אֶחָֽד׃ — Shema Yisra'el, YHWH 'eloheinu, YHWH 'eḥad.

Deuteronomy 6:4–5 (NET):

Listen, Israel: The Lord is our God, the Lord is one! You must love the Lord your God with your whole mind, your whole being, and all your strength.

My Modified Translation:

Listen, Israel: Yahweh is our God, Yahweh is one! You must love Yahweh your God with your whole mind, your whole being, and all your muchness.

The Shema is the ancient biblical authors' reach for a human experience that transcends the pain of brokenness.

But that's just the thing. If I ever got a "platform" it would only be sustainable for the very reason that I don't need it anymore. It would be because I have meaning and purpose and value aside from anything I "accomplish" in this life. That's the heart of Shema, ultimately. It's the core of Shalom.

My meaning and purpose is to become whole, centered, regulated, in myself, and to do as much good as I can for others in my circle of influence, even if that's just the cashier I meet that day would doing life things. I often miss living in areas with public transportation because it gave me the opportunity to help a complete stranger feel seen and heard. It is those 'divine encounters' that have become the hallmark of my experience. The Breath of Yahweh, HaRuach, comes alive in me when I truly encounter another human being's soul.

The poor, needy, outcast, immigrant, prisoner, the sick and broken.... These are Yahweh's, Rabbi Yeshua's, and HaRuach's very heart ( which is why the entire ethos of MAGA is anti-Messiah). 

If I only ever impact a few people deeply, I am satisfied. Yahweh can do the big global 4-D Chess moves that produce change for millions. I'll just be the pinky toe in his body. I'm totally at peace today remaining in obscurity and simply being transformed by The Way of Rabbi Yeshua. 

Rabbi Yeshua impacted thousands during his lifetime. 

Only thousands. 

Not millions. 

It was the movement that came as a result of his impact that led to fundamentally transformating the entire Roman empire over the next 300 years, and led to millions claiming to be his followers 2,000 years later, and to my studying him in a school dedicated to that study. 

Like most movements, it lost its way over the span of time, and continues to require reboots and revivals, bringing it back to its core truths. Suffering is often the means of these reboots.

While the followers of Yeshua in the third world are intimately aware of suffering, and embrace it as part of their journey, the vast majority of the developed world have a shiney plastic veneer in place of the authentic Way of Yeshua. It was that plastic veneer that my Dad sought until it broke him. 

We've seen the veneer crack time and time again. 

-Mega church pastors end up exposed as having rotten cores. 

-Catholic schools killed indigenous children and buried them in mass graves, in vain attempts at conversion. 

-Big so-called "Christian" movements like MAGA produce nothing but rotten fruit, worthless plastic platitudes, and they bring violence and death, all while claiming to speak for Jesus, who would have called them a brood of vipers, a den of snakes.

It seems inevitable that good things become corrupted and evil.

During his trek through earth in the body, Rabbi Yeshua only ever impacted a few thousand people in a few towns in a backwater part of the Roman empire in the reject province of Judea. Yet, his ethos still inspired me 2,000 years later to embrace suffering as part of my human experience.

Rabbi Yeshua's message heavily leaned into suffering as transformation and reward. It is the "poor in spirit...". 

Suffering is the key to an inner world that brings transformation. 

This is not to belittle the experience of suffering. If someone is in deep pain reading this, it may sound hollow and trite. I understand, and I sympathize. And like Yancey noted in his book, suffering doesn't always end in recovery. For some, suffering just persists, gets worse, then they die. This is an awful truth of a broken world. This too is evil.

Many do, however, find transformation and Shalom right there in the middle of the storm. 

We see a guy with no arms or legs becoming a public speaker who teaches hope in adversity, and we can't help but feel a little inspired.

I don't call myself Christian anymore. The label didn't fit. It's too closely tied with Churchianity, which I completely rejected as a psudeo Jesus-Follower environment. It's also associated with 2,000 years of superimposed western misreadings which are foreign to the eastern biblical authors. Like Augustine and Calvin and Luther, to name a few. 

But... The Way of Rabbi Yeshua... I still find it compelling. It is the Eastern Worldview, not the later Western Worldview imposed on it, that I find compelling. 

Suffering is a core part of the human experience, and I have come to embrace it when it visits me. I become a better human when I come through a season of suffering. 

Shalom Bright Hearts,

Darrell Wolfe, Storyteller 

— KM Wieland, Story Structure 

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DRAFT - Nerdy Biblical Theology Majors Group Guidelines

I wrote this for a group I was participating in, before I got too busy. Saving it here as a good reference. 

***DRAFT*** Nerdy Biblical Theology Majors

 

“A text without a context is just a pretext for whatever you want it to mean; therefore always study the Bible in light of its original historical, archaeological, literary, theological, ethical contexts” – Ben Witherington III. “Reading and Understanding the Bible: An Interview with Ben Witherington III.” Interview by Jonathan Petersen. Blog Post of Interview, 11 December 2014. Bible Gateway Blog [LINK].

 

Nerdy Biblical Theology Majors Group Guidelines

Purpose:

This group exists to explore Biblical Theology, focusing on understanding biblical texts within their original historical and literary contexts.

We explore the language, culture, and intertextuality of the biblical authors within their original historical contexts and literary ecosystems.

We aim to foster thoughtful, text-based discussion, welcoming contributions from academics, students, and laypersons alike.

Core Guidelines:

1.       Stay Textual:

In general, posts should be grounded in a specific biblical text or series of inter-related textual themes. We’re here to discuss the Bible in its original context, not abstract theology. When contributing, please make it clear what verse, pericope, book, or textual theme you’re working with. Discussions about doctrines, creeds, or theological systems are generally discouraged, but may sometimes be appropriate when anchored to the biblical text itself.

• Acceptable: “How does Paul’s use of ‘righteousness’ in Romans reflect Second Temple Jewish thought?”
• Not acceptable: “Is (insert generic theology term) correct?”
1. Academic Sources Encouraged, but Popular Sources Allowed:
   We aim for an academic tone, but we recognize that laymen and students bring value too. When possible, cite academic sources such as peer-reviewed journal articles, books from academic publishers (Baker, IVP, Zondervan, etc.), or academic lexicons like BDB or HALOT or BDAG. Popular sources are welcome, provided they contribute constructively to the conversation and engage meaningfully with the biblical text.
• Acceptable: A YouTube video from a scholar or student who cites their sources.
• Not acceptable: YouTube where someone is not using an academic or scholarly tone or approach, or outdated materials like Strong’s Concordance.
2. Engage Respectfully and Openly:
   This is a place for discussion, not debate. Ask genuine questions of the group, be open to alternate readings, and engage in conversation with curiosity, not defensiveness. Posts should encourage dialogue rather than monologues, inviting others to share their perspectives.
• Example: “I’ve been thinking about this reading of Genesis—what do you think?”
• Example: “Have you considered…?”
3. Structure Your Contributions for Readability:
   Posts should be easy to read, especially on mobile. Use paragraphs, punctuation, and clear structure.
• Conciseness is key—keep it digestible while making your point. If your post is long, consider breaking it up or summarizing key points at the start.
• Consider providing a simple summary of the issue and linking it to an academic source for the broader discussion.
• Ask smaller questions, focus on one key point of discussion, one key word or phrase or theme.
4. Avoid Systematic Theology, Creeds, and Traditions:
   While systematic theology, doctrines, and creeds have their place, this group is dedicated to biblical theology—understanding the text as it was written in its own time. Posts focused on systems or traditions without textual grounding will be redirected or removed.
• What did the original author intend to communicate to his/her original ancient audience?
5. No Politics or Denominational or Fringe Debates:
   To maintain focus, political discussions and denominational disputes are not allowed. Keep the focus on the biblical text and avoid getting bogged down in eschatological debates, Calvinism vs. Arminianism debates, or similar well-worn theological conflicts. The late Dr. Michael Heiser used to “if it’s weird, it’s important”. So, we’re not against odd takes, but they should be rooted in the text and within solid academic evaluation of the text. Let’s avoid ranting YouTubers.
6. Post with Purpose:
   Make sure your post has a clear goal aimed at inviting a conversation—whether it's asking a question, presenting a thought, or inviting feedback. Posts should not simply state opinions without backing them up with evidence or questions.
7. No promotions or spam

Give more than you take in this group. Self-promotion, spam and irrelevant links aren't allowed. No solicitations for money or asking someone to pay for something.

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Need Clarification?

If you’re unsure about what qualifies as biblical theology or whether your post fits the group’s focus, please review our Definitions Post or ask an admin for guidance.

 

 

Alt Info

 

·         The Hebrew Bible (Tanakh, aka Old Testament) is understood within its Ancient Near East (ANE) contexts.

·         The Greek Bible (New Covenant, B’rit Chadashah, aka New Testament) is understood within its Second Temple Judaism and Greco-Roman world, contexts.

·        Additional Texts (Apocrypha, Pseudepigrapha, Dead Sea Scrolls/Qumran writings, Ugaritic & Akkadian writings, Greco-Roman philosophers, and other comparative literature) are included in discussions to provide greater insight into the cultural and religious environment of the biblical authors. These texts help us understand how the biblical texts interacted with other literature of the time and what influence they may have had on early Jewish and Christian thought. They should be used to understand a biblical text but not become the sole focus of the post.

 

 

 

 

***DRAFT***

NERDY BIBLICAL THEOLOGY MAJORS - DEFINITIONS POST

To help clarify key terms and ensure discussions stay focused, we’ve provided definitions for some foundational concepts and terms frequently used in this group. Please reference these definitions when engaging in discussions, and feel free to ask questions if you're unsure whether your post fits within these boundaries.

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Biblical Theology

Definition: Biblical Theology is the study of the Bible with a focus on understanding how the biblical authors communicated theological concepts within their own historical, cultural, and literary contexts. It emphasizes the progressive development of ideas within the Bible itself, without imposing later systems or doctrines.

• Example: Exploring how Paul’s letters develop ideas about resurrection within the Second Temple Jewish context.

Systematic Theology

Definition: Systematic Theology organizes theological ideas into a structured framework, often grouping concepts (e.g., sin, salvation, God) into categories that span the whole Bible. While systematic theology can be helpful, this group focuses on biblical theology, so discussions of systems must remain grounded in specific biblical texts and contexts.

• Example: Instead of discussing "salvation" broadly, we explore how specific texts like Romans or the Gospel of John address salvation within their historical settings.

Ancient Near East (ANE)

Definition: The ANE refers to the region and cultures surrounding ancient Israel, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Assyria, Babylon, and Canaan. Understanding the cultural, religious, and political contexts of these civilizations helps illuminate the Hebrew Bible.

• Example: The covenant structure of Deuteronomy reflects similar treaties from the ANE.

Second Temple Judaism

Definition: This period (roughly 516 BCE to 70 CE) refers to the time between the rebuilding of the Jewish temple after the Babylonian exile and its destruction by the Romans. Many of the writings in the New Testament were shaped by the religious, political, and cultural dynamics of this era.

• Example: Understanding Pharisees, Sadducees, and Messianic expectations in this period helps contextualize Jesus' interactions with these groups in the Gospels.

Greco-Roman World

Definition: This refers to the cultural, political, and intellectual environment dominated by Greek and Roman influence during the New Testament era. Knowing this context helps us understand how early Christian writers like Paul engaged with Greco-Roman society.

• Example: Paul's use of household codes in Ephesians reflects common Greco-Roman structures, but he subverts them with Christian ethics.

Apocrypha and Pseudepigrapha

Definition: These are collections of Jewish writings from the intertestamental period (between the Old and New Testaments). While not considered canon by most Protestant traditions, these texts were widely read by Jews and early Christians and provide important context for biblical writings.

• Example: The Book of Tobit or 1 Enoch offers insight into Jewish thought during the Second Temple period.

Lexicon (BDB, HALOT, BDAG, etc.)

Definition: A lexicon is a scholarly dictionary of ancient languages, offering definitions and explanations of how words were used in their original contexts.

• BDB (Brown-Driver-Briggs) and HALOT (Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament) are two of the most widely respected lexicons for biblical Hebrew studies.
• BDAG (Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich) A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature
• Example: Citing HALOT for the meaning of a Hebrew word in Isaiah adds depth to understanding the text's original meaning.

Intertextuality

Definition: Intertextuality refers to the way biblical texts reference, echo, or engage with other texts, both within the Bible and in external literature from surrounding cultures. It helps us see connections and influences across different works.

• Example: The use of Exodus themes in Isaiah or the allusions to the Psalms in the Gospels.

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• Post Guidelines Recap

If your post involves systematic theology, creeds, or later traditions, remember that we aim to focus on biblical theology, so always anchor your discussion to specific texts and their original contexts. We welcome academic sources and encourage respectful dialogue.

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Questions or Suggestions?
If you're uncertain about any of these definitions or terms, feel free to reach out to an admin or ask for clarification in the comments.

 

 

 

***DRAFT***

Lexicons for Language Studies

Here are some of the most widely accepted and respected academic lexicons for biblical Hebrew and Greek, including both older foundational works and more modern resources:

For Biblical Hebrew (and Aramaic):

1. Brown-Driver-Briggs (BDB) –
• Full title: A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament
• Published in 1906, this lexicon remains a widely-used standard for biblical Hebrew and Aramaic, despite its age. It is respected for its comprehensive definitions and historical insights.
• Pros: Easily accessible, widely referenced, detailed word studies.
• Cons: Some outdated interpretations; later scholarship has refined certain definitions.
2. HALOT (Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament) –
• Full title: The Hebrew and Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (edited by Ludwig Koehler and Walter Baumgartner)
• This multi-volume lexicon is a more recent and comprehensive resource. It reflects modern linguistic scholarship and incorporates insights from Ugaritic and other ANE languages.
• Pros: Up-to-date, covers both Hebrew and Aramaic, includes comparative Semitic language insights.
• Cons: Expensive, more technical.
3. Gesenius' Hebrew-Chaldee Lexicon –
• Published in the 19th century by Wilhelm Gesenius, this lexicon was one of the foundational works in biblical Hebrew lexicography and remains valuable for historical study.
• Pros: Widely accessible, foundational in lexicon studies.
• Cons: Somewhat outdated; modern scholarship has refined many entries.

For Biblical Greek:

1. BDAG (Bauer-Danker-Arndt-Gingrich) –
• Full title: A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early Christian Literature
• This is the gold standard for New Testament Greek. BDAG is comprehensive, modern, and indispensable for scholarly work in biblical Greek.
• Pros: Thorough, reflects modern scholarship, includes references to early Christian literature beyond the New Testament.
• Cons: Can be dense for beginners, expensive.
2. LSJ (Liddell-Scott-Jones) –
• Full title: A Greek-English Lexicon
• LSJ is the most comprehensive lexicon for classical Greek, but it is also highly relevant for biblical and Septuagint studies. It is essential for understanding the broader use of Greek in the ancient world.
• Pros: Extensive coverage of Greek, including non-biblical sources; freely accessible online in some versions.
• Cons: Not specific to biblical Greek, so it requires careful discernment when applying to the New Testament.
3. Thayer’s Greek-English Lexicon –
• An older lexicon, published in the late 19th century. While dated, it was a widely used resource for biblical Greek and still finds use today in some circles.
• Pros: Accessible and clear for students.
• Cons: Many entries are outdated compared to BDAG; better used alongside more modern resources.

For Both Greek and Hebrew (Septuagint Studies):

1. Muraoka’s Greek-English Lexicon of the Septuagint (GELS) –
• Focuses on the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, and is a valuable resource for scholars studying how Greek was used in the translation of Hebrew scriptures.
• Pros: Focused on the Septuagint, valuable for understanding the translation process and choices.
• Cons: Limited to the LXX; more specialized than BDAG or LSJ.

These lexicons are widely accepted in both academic and theological studies, even older ones like BDB and Thayer's, as long as they're used with an understanding of their limitations and supplemented by more modern scholarship.

Strong's is generally discouraged.

Note: Limitations of Using Strong's Concordance in Modern Academic Biblical Studies

Strong's Concordance, a popular reference tool for biblical languages, is not commonly used in modern academic biblical studies due to several significant limitations:

1. Contextual Nuances: Strong's lists all possible definitions for Hebrew and Greek words without considering their specific contexts. Words can have varied meanings depending on their usage, similar to how the phrase "that's hot" in English can mean physically warm, sexually appealing, popular, or even contentious. Academic scholarship requires understanding words within their specific textual and historical contexts to accurately interpret their meanings.
2. Outdated and Over-simplified: The definitions in Strong's are based on 19th-century scholarship and tend to oversimplify complex linguistic phenomena. Modern biblical studies use advanced lexicons like HALOT or BDAG, which provide updated and nuanced language analysis.
3. Lacks Critical Engagement: Strong's Concordance does not address textual variants, historical linguistics, or the evolution of language, all of which are crucial for in-depth academic research.

Due to these issues, scholars opt for more comprehensive and critically-engaged resources that consider the broader linguistic and cultural settings of biblical texts.

 

Shalom שָׁלוֹם: Live Long and Prosper!

Darrell Wolfe

Storyteller | Writer | Thinker | Consultant | Freelancer | Bible Nerd *Written withs some editing and research assistance from ChatGPT-4o

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